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HEALTH EDUCATION

AND COMMLINITY

PHARMtg;r,

,, I

:.

SYLLABU,S

1. CONCEPT OF HEALTH

2.NUTRITION & HEALTH

3.DEMOGRAPIfY (^) & FAMILY PLANNING

4.FIRST AID

5.EN\IRONMENT & HEALTH

6. FT]NDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF

MICROBIOLOGY

7. COMMT]NICABLE DISEASES
8. NON.COMMI]NICABLE DISEASES

9.EPIDEMIOLOGY

--c)

Nutrition- Good nutrition is essenfial for normal growth & also for resistance

against irfection.

-d) Occupation- EmDloment^ Drovides^ income^ so^ employed peoples

"-opy

good healtlL because tiey can afford me.dical

but

unemployed can:rot.

5-5ggl$-servigg- The aim of health & family welfare servic€s is to treat diseases,

prevent illness & promotion ofhealth. Health services like safe water supply &

immunization prevent^ a variety ofhealth diseases.

-Of-Write a^ note on^ lndicators of health. / (^) in"r compare the

health status ofotre community^ with other.

Charscteristlcs of lndicators

An ideal health indicator should be valid, reliable, sensitive & specific

Tvoes of indicators

The important indicators ofhealth are-

Mortaliff indicators Morbidif indicators

Disability rates

Nutritional status indicators

Eealth care delivery indicators

Environmental indicators

Social & mental health indicators

MuMs biNEsB

8. utilizition rates
9. Socio- economic indicators

Ans: The disease can be prevented^ at three levels-

1. Primarv nrevention- This action is taken before the onset ofdisease. This

inten'ention is taken at the prepathogenesis^ phase^ ofthe disease. The interventions are

health promotion & specific protection.

2, Secondarv Dreyention- It is the action taken at the early stage ofdisease to halt^ the

progress ofdisease & prevents complications. The modes of intewention are early

diagnosis & treatments.

3. Tertiarv prevention- It is the measure taken after the disease has advanced beyond

the early stages. The mode ofiuten'ention is disability limitation & rehabilitation. These

measures (^) minimize the (^) suffering & help the patient (^) to adjust with the derangement of health.

Q.4 How^ can the^ disease be^ prevented?

CHAPTER-

xurnr-ii6ffiEar,rn

Q I^ Define^ Nutrition.^ Classify food^ aDd its functioN.

!lg[!@- Nutrition^ is^ defined^ as^ the scieace^ of food & its relationship to health.

Nutrients are specific dietary constituetrts such as proteins, vitamins & minerals. Food

must contain adequate amounts ofal1 these nutrients in order to maintain health.

Functions of food

F It provides energy for mechanical work.

! It maintains growth, repair & reproduction.

! It provides resistance against infections & diseases.

> It maintains the functions ofbodv tissues.

Classification (^) of food t,sfw\e-

t l. Accordirg to source

)' Vegeiable food for ex- Rice, Wheat etc

) Animal foods for ex- Meat, egg, fish etc.

2. According to functions

F Body builders for ex- meat, mil! fish etc.

F Bnergy yielders for ex- cereals, sugars etc.

! Protectives for ex- vegetables, fruits etc.

3, According to chemical nature

) Proteins

i lx,il*,". >^ [W

F Vitamins

) Minerals

Q.2 Deline Protein.^ List^ there^ functioL Name the types of amino acld.

Ans:_Protein is high moleculat weight polypeptides containing alpha amino acids joined

together by peptide linkage.

Function:

l. They provide structural ftame work for celli and tissues.

2. Maintence of osmatic pressure.

3. Synthesis ofantibodies, plasma proteins and hemoglobin.

4. Proteins (^) can be catabolized to (^) release energy. ,1 5.^ Act^ as^ enzymes^ and^ hormon

Oor,,.ez

res'

f"'NLfl'o *

*Wry

TYPES OF AMINO ACIDS

l. Essential or Indispensabte (^) Amino acids: (^) These are those which (^) carmot be

syDthesized by the body. So they must be supplied in adequate amount through diet

.eg.valine, leucine, and methionine.

2. Non +ssential Amino Acids: These are those which can be synthesized by the body

and hence ofthe di

Requirement: 5000 I.U. dailv

Source: - Found in animal f;ts & fish liver oil & also produced on exposure

ofskin to

tM (^) rays ofsunlight.

Functions:

F (^) It is necessary (^) for bone & (^) teeth formation. ) (^) It is also necessary for normal growth.

(^) In the kidney (^) it ircreases (^) the reabsorption (^) ofphosphates.

gg!!glg!E!- (^) It produces (^) Rickets in children (^) & osteomalacia in adults.

RequirementF t000 I.U Dail".

VITAMINE

It belongs.to a gr_ oup of compounds called tocopherols. Alph

Beta, gamma^ and delta

tocopherols are known.

Functions

1. It is necessa5/ for reproduction and its deficiency leads to

sterility.

2, It is necessary for muscle metabolism

3. By an antioxidant effect, it protects vitamin A from deshuction.

4. lt prevents (^) hemolysis (^) by protecting (^) unsaturated (^) fatty (^) acids oferythrocle membrane.

SoErqe: -^ Soya^ bean oil, wheat germ oil and rice genn oil.

Deficiencv: - Deficiency of vitamin E produces aiortion and

sterility in

animals.

VTTAMINK

The major forms of vitamin K are vitamin K; and K

Functions: - Vitamin K is necessary for the synthesis of cloning

factors esp€cially

{rothrombin. Its^ deficiency^ decreasls prot}rombin (^) cont"nt (^) oiil'*a.

#:

• (^) Vitamin (^) Kl is present (^) in liver, (^) spinach, green (^) leafl vegetables and cow,s (^) milk

Vitamin K2 is synthesized by intestinal baiteria. -

Fi$qy:

• (^) Increased bleeding due to defective (^) clotting mechanism. Requirement: (^) - 0.03mg per kg Daily.

WATER SOUBLE VITAMINS

rne water sotuble vrtamrns whtch_belong to the group of vitamin B complex

are

thiamine, riboflavin, nicotinic acid,_ pyriaoxine, p'antottrenlc aJJ

ionositof, Uiotin,

methionine, folic acid and cyanocobaiamin.

THIAMIIIE (Vitamin 81, (^) Aneurine) lggryq: Peas,^ beans, oatuneal, pea^ ruts,^ vegetables^ and^ ftuits.

Deficiencv: Deficiency of thiamine produces

1. Beriberi a symptom complex with characteristic neuropathy.

2. Wemicke's encephalopathy characterized by confusion, Ophthlmoplegia,

oystagmus, tremors, and mental retardation.

Requirement: 2mg. daily increases with intake ofmore carbohy&ates.

RIBOFLAVIN (Vitamin^ B2)

SEgg: Milk,^ eggs,^ liver, kidney,^ green^ leafr^ vegetables, meat and^ fish.

@gy: Deficiency^ of^ riboflavin^ produces angular^ stomatitis.^ It^ is^ prevalent^ in

malnourished children ald it is used as an index for malnutrition. Other deficiency

symptoms are:

I. Delayed wound healing 2. Irnpaired neuromotor function.

BglEggen!: 2 to 3 mg.^ daily.

NIACIN (Nicotinic^ Acid. Vitamin 83)

@: Liver,^ kidney,^ meat,^ poultry,^ fish,^ legumes^ and^ ground nut.

pgl!g!949y: Deficiency of niacin produces pellagra. This disease is characterized by three

D's diarrhea dermatitis and dementia- In addition, glossitis and stomatitis may also occur.

Pcllagra occurs in malnourished individuals who live on a diet containing maize or

jowar. Pellagra can be prevented by avoiding maize andjowar and by taking a mixed diet

containing milk and or meat.

BgggjqS!: The^ daily^ requirement^ of^ niacin^ is S&ng.

Deficiency: Deficiency ofvitamin C produces scurvy.'[he synptoms of scurvy are

weakness, fatigue, pain injoins.and muscles. Also there is bleeding of gums and

loosening ofteeth.

Requlrement: 40 to 60 mg. daily

06 Deline^ Mineral.^ Write its function and its classification.

..

Ans: Human body contains more than 50 chemical elements. These minerals are obtained

mainly through food I![inerals make up l/20th ofbody weight.

Iv1-;a,1qyaf{ Ocur-{'r}r^ e^ 'r-,^g^;-L^ e}^ p..^ eA

Functions of minerals:

.- 1.^ They^ are^ the constituents^ ofbone^ and^ teeth and required^ for their growth^ e.g.^ calcium qnd phosphorus. r'Z They^ are^ necessary^ for growth.

_3-They stimulate digestive^ secretions.

.4-. llhey maintain^ tone and^ frmction of^ muscles- eg, Sodium and^ calcium.

J They^ maintain €l€cholyte^ balance^ in body fluids.

eg. - Sodium potassium^ and chloride

Classification of minerals

I. Major minerals: Calciunr, phosphorus, sodium, potassium (^) and magnesium. 2, TraGe elements (^) with known firnction: Iron, iodine, fluorine, zinc and Copper.

3. Trace elemetrts with no known function: lead, mercury, barium and

alurrinum.

Q.7 Write^ the^ function,^ sources,^ deficiency of calcium^ in^ human body.

Ans: It fonns 1.5 to 2 per cent ofbody tveight. An average adult body contains 1200

grams of calcium. Of this 98 per cent is present in bones.

Functions:

l. It is necessary for growth ofbones and teeth.

2. It is required for the clotting ofblood.

3. It regulates the contraclion ofmuscles.

4. It is required for cardiac action and milk production.

5. It forms a component of several en4nnes.

Sources:

1. Milk and milk products like cheese, curd and butter milk. They are the best natural

sources of calcium-

2. Green lea$ vegetables like spinach.

3. (^) Millets like ragi.

Deficiency: Deficiency of calcium leads to rickets in children and osteomalacia in adults.

Also it leads to delayed blood clotting.

Requirement: 400 to 500 mg per day.

I (^) tr" d"V

Q.8 Write^ the function, sourceq deficiency oflodine ln human body.

Ans: Iodine is an essential micronutrient. The totar body content

ofiodine is about 50mg.

the blood level is about 8-12 micro gm.mVdl.

Function of Iodine:

a) It is. required for the synthesis ofThyroid Hormones.

D) rodme amount required for growth and development.

Sources: The best source oflodine is sea food. Eg. Sea,

fish, sea salt & cod_liver oil.

Deficlency: Goiter and Fllpothyroidism.

r (^) Retarded physical growth (^) and mental (^) development

Requlremenh l50mg/day.

Q.9 Write^ the function, sources, deliciency of Iron in human body.

Ans: kon is very important nutrieot. The_adult human

body contains 3 to 4grn ofkon.

Hemoglobin (^) ofblood (^50) to T0percent (^) offon i"p.e."ot.-

Function:

l. It (^) is neces-sary (^) for the synthesis (^) of Hemoglobin.

3. Il Tq:r*

f"..Brain developmenr and miscle activity.

J. Iron regulates body temperature.

Source: Iron is present in liver, meat, kidney, fish, green vegetables, jaggery

and Date

Deficiency: Deficiency oflron leads to Anemia.

Requirement: 15 to 30mg per day.

Q,9 Write^ a^ note on malnutrition. Explain the proteln deficiency disease.

-.'or(PE,ltr)

A-ns: The de{iciency ofany of the essential constituents

of food leads to malnutrition.This

ln turn leads to specific diseases.-Two important diseases ui"

caus"d due to protein

energy malnutrition (pEM) in children. Ttey aie:

o (^) Kwashiorkar e (^) Marasmus.

o (^) Kwashiorkar: (^) This form. ofpEM (^) occurs

mostly in the second year oflife. It is

due to (^) weaning ofthe (^) child (^) from brea.t (^) t"

ai"i l.* in protein.so rhe essentiai

feature is a deficiency ofprotein with adequate energy

intake.\

I I

L

I

Q.2 Deline^ fertility,^ Write^ the yarious factor which regulate fertility.

Ans-Fertility is the actual bearing ofchildren, Some demographers prefer the word

Natality in place of fertility. Facundity is the capacity to have children.

Factors (^) ofFertility: The (^) following are important factors (^) which regulate fertility.

L Age at marriage: Early rrarriage is long established custom in India. The

disadvantages of early marriage are:

a) Population Growth due to increased child birth

b) Adverse effect on the health of women

2. Duratlon of Married llfe: Maximum child birth occurs in the fust 15 years of married

life.

3. Spaclng of Children: Spacing between births reduces fertility rate.

4. Education: Educated women give birth to lesser number ofchildren when compare to

illiterates.

5. Economic Status: Fertility decreases with an increase in per capita income. Economic

development is the best (^) contraceptive.

6. Caste and Religion: Muslim show higher fertility than Hindu. Among Hindus,

fertility is high in lower caste.

7. Nutrition: It has an indirect effect. Well fed societies sbow lower fertility rate.

8. tr'amily Planning: It lowers the fertility rate.

Q.3 what^ ls^ the role^ of pharmacist ln famity planning?

Ans: The pharmacist comes across a number ofpeople. The illiterates or the less

educated peoples are unaware of the benefits of iamily plaruring; therefore the pharmacist

plays a very important role in the family planning & removing any fears about ?amily

planning.

The pharmacist^ can promote family planning by:

}. Displaying (^) family planning poiters in fospitai (^) & drug store } Advising peoples about (^) family planning (^) & (^) spacing oichildren's I By^ distributing^ pamphlets^ which^ give^ ainformation^ about^ family^ planning ) (^) To explain about the various oral (^) contraceptives & the (^) others techniques of

family planning

) (^) Grride peoples to (^) hospital & family planning (^) centers for vasectomy (^) & tubectomy

, (^) He should (^) motivate the peoples towards thJfamily planning ) (^) He should remove the fear & misconcepts about fiamily plailing (^) from the mind

ofpeoples

Q.4 Define^ farnily^ planning^ &^ explain various (^) methods of family planning.

Definition: Family Plaming means to plan & limit the size of the family in accordance

with the social, economic and health conditions, so as to ensure that theiamily is happy

both physically & mentally.

Methods of family planning

L Temporary Method

o Natural Method.

a) Sexual abstinence method

b) Coitus intemrptus

c) Safe period method

d) Basal body temperature method

e) Cervical mucus method

f) Prolonged lactation method

g) Yaginal washing method

. (^) Sprcing Method

r) Barrier contraceptiv€s (Mechatrical Methods)

) Condom F Diaphragn ) Intrauterine (^) devices

b) Chemical methods

) (^) Foam tablets ) (^) Contraceptive pills (^) & jellies ) (^) Soluble tablets F Oral contraceptives II. Permanent (^) Methods (Sterilisation (^) Method) a) Vasectomy (MALE STERILISATION): tn this method, (^) a piece (^) of vas deferens of

about I cm length is removed after clamping. The ends are ligaa€d ard then folded back

on themselves and sutued .Now the cut ends face away from each other.

Advice (^) rfter vasectomy

I. The patient should be told that he is uot sterile immediately after operation .He is

sterile only after 30 ejaculations.

2. He (^) must use contraceptives till aspermia (^) is established.

3. He must avoid cycling or lifting heavy weights for 15 da1s.

COMPLICATIONS Otr' VASECTOMY:

l. Operative complications like hematoma and (^) infections.

2. Sperm granuloma accompanied by pain and swelling.

3. Spontaneous (^) recanalisation.

4. Psychological disturbances like loss ofsexual vigor, impotence, fatigue.

b) Tubectomy @emale $terilization)! It is done by two procedures:

MINILAPROTOMY: It is a modification of abdominal tubectomy.It is a very simple

procedure done under local anaesthesia.It requires a very small abdominal incision of 2.

to 3 cm in length .It is a safe, efficient and easy procedure with less complication.

Laproscopy: It is done through abdominal approach with a specialized instrument called

"laproscope". The abdomen is inflated with gas (carton dioxide, nitrous oxide or

air).Then the instrument is introduced into the abdominal cavity tovisualise the fallopian

tubes. The hrbes are occluded with fallop rings (or clips).

Advantages of laparoscopy are short operating time, shorter stay in the hospital, and a

small scar, rarely puncture oflarge blood vessels and other complications may occur.

d) Medical termination of pregnancy

Q.3 Wrlte^ the^ first^ rid^ treatment^ of (^) Wounds

Ans: Wounds are four types:

l. Abrasions: Which are made by rubbhg or scraping.

2. Incised Wourd: They are sharp cuts that tend tb bieea.

3. Lacerated Wound: They are irregular wounds associated with tissue damage.

4 ?uncturc-'Wound: Caused by dagger or knife. They are deep wounds.

The Iirst aid teatnent involves the following steps. rhe first aider should wash his

hands before dealing with the wound.

Q 4.^ \Yrite^ the^ first^ aid^ trertment^ of Fractures.

Ans.tr'irst aid treatment of fracfures:

r- Fracture of clavicle: 1 .The upper arm of the injured side is bandaged

to the side of the

chest.

2. Thr upp-er limb ofthe injured side is supported by a triangular sling.

3' Pulse is felt on the injured side, to make sure there is no inierference with circulation.

4. Facture ofscapula: A firm triangular sling. A board bandage around the upper ann.

5' tr'racture of humerus: It is a serious fracGe .It may lead to"iqlury to biood

vessels in

the elbow It is treated by padding the arm and supporting in a triingular sling.

4, Fncture neck of radius: A triangular sling.

5. Fracture of radius and ulna: well-padded splint with a triangle sling to support the

Iimb.

6. tr'racture of thr pelvis: The legs should be bound together .the patient should be

moved in a stretcher, Speedy evacuation to hospital is iecessary.

Q 5.^ Write^ t[e^ first aid treatnent (^) of Burns.

Ans.Ilirst .id (^) trsatmetrt of (^) burN:

L Put out the (^) lire: The (^) first step is to extinguish (^) buming clothing and to cool (^) the bum.

The victim should notrun aroun4 siace it encourages thJ flame tJ spread rapidly .He

must lie down to smother the flames. He nust be Gapped in a blanket or rug. IVater

can

be poured over him both to cool the skin and to extinguish th" clothr. I"e wat",

should be used.

2' shock: The patient shourd be kept lying down and reassured. If the patient comprains

of thint, he may be grven fluids. SuitaUe oral fluid is two pints of water containini

a

teaspoonfrl each of salt and sodium bicarbonate. This may replace salt loss. orat tiuias

should not be given if the patient is unconscious.

3. Maintenarce of airway: person tapped in a buming building may

develop oederna of

the face aad a respirated complicationdue to fimes. M-aintenanJe of'airway

li the

zaaaaaaqqqqqqqqqqqqq222222zxxxtrxx<:<:<:<xx<xdirst priority in these cases and these

patients must be removed to the hospital without delav.

4. Prevention of infection: The frst aider should avoid touching the bum or he should

wash his hands.

5. Dressing the burn: Lotions' ointonents or antibiotic creams should not be

applied

.Burnt clothing should not be removed and blisters should not be broken. The iurnt area

may be covered vrith a prepared dry sterile &essing, clean lint or freshly laundered linen,

Firm bandages may be applied except in case of blisters- where ,Light bandage is applied

Q 6.^ \Mrite^ the^ lirst^ aid treatment of^ Heart^ attack^ (^ yf,^ /

iliir

"ia

t"""t-.otorhearr atrack: (^ Wee"d; 4 1-" * d

1. Ifthere is no pulse, cardiopulmonary resuscitation must be commenced immediately,

2, Nothing should be given by mouth.

3. Unconscious patient with pulse and hffithing should be placed in recovery position.

Airway must be maintained"

4. Conscious patient must be placed (^) sitting at 45 degrees and should not be laid flat. kgs

should not be raised since it may inuease venous retum and thus strain the heart.

5. Clothes must be loosened and the patient reassured.

6. Movements must be limited as much as possible.

7. Medical help must be surnmoned immediately.

Chapter-s

ENVIRONMENT AND IIEALTH

Ql. Write^ the^ sources^ of^ water?

Ans .The major sources ofwater are:

, Rain^ water:^ Rain^ water^ is^ pure^ initially,^ it^ receives^ impurities^ fiom^ the abnosphere -such as^ dust, shoot,^ suspended^ matter, and mierobes,^ gas^ normally^ it^ is not pathogenic.

Rain water, ifproperly collected and store{ is a safe water.it is soft as it contained no

mineral salts in it, It is suitable for cooking, washing and bathing.it is soft and liable to

corrode lead pipes and thereby cause lead poisoning.

_ 2)^ Surface^ Water:^ Rain water on reaching the ground,^ or^ the^ melted snow from^ hills begins to flow as aliver, canal,.g@, p$pr^ pgund (^) and is called surface water .since it

may travel a long distance, it contained suspended materials .it is oollected in large

reservoirs or settling tanks. Subsequently water is filtered and sterilized further by

chlorination or other methods to make it suitable for drinking.

--.,3) Rivers!^ Upland^ surface water runs on the^ slide^ ofhills,^ slopes and^ valleys^ and^ is^ taken

off as water supply before it forrns big stream s and rivers .An upland water is safe

because it is pure rain water which has travelled a short distance.it needs purifrcation by

filhation and sterilization by chlorination or by running through a bed of fine sand before

final storage.

_4) Ground^ r#ater:^ Wells^ and^ springs^ are^ impodant^ sourc€s^ of^ ground^ water^ .an^ ideal

• well^ should^ be^ tapped^ ir a good^ soil and should be tapped in a good^ soil and should be at

least 200 ft. Away from possible contamination source .no washing ofcloths, utensils,

and bathing of persons be allowed near a well. Well water may be treated with a solution

of I part^ of freshly prepared^ lime to'4 parts of water or bleaching powder, or potassium

permanganate solution.

Artilicial (^) methods (^) ofdistination (^) are used in chemical laboratories. Boiling (^) removes

solid materials like chaft gases, organic matter ar{microbes' .It is adaptdas a

precautionary measure in the presence of an epidemic ofurater_$ome diseases.

Following chemicals are used for disinfecting water in the concentrations indicat€d

glong with.

-z l)^ r'Jt;m^ 13-50^ mgnit ,) Copper sulphate 0.1 to 0.25 ppm

Calcium oxide 80 mlit

4) Chlorine 0.5 ppm as bleaching powder

5) Bromine 3.6 mg/lit

6) Iodine 2 ppm

7. Potassium permanganate 5ppm.

Use.of filtrations removes suspended matter, the oy4 cysts spores and bacteria .Slow

sand- filters use layer ofbricks, broken stones, pebbles, toarsi and. fine sand. The process

offiltrations,is slow -it may take about 3 days ior new bed offilter to be active .Rapid

mechanical filters may be ofpressure or gravity type .they are quick and filter about 450_

600lit/24 hrs.

Q 4.^ Write^ a^ note on chlorination. /

Ans.

crrLoRrNATIoN: (^) It is the addition of chlorine (^) to frltered water (^) for fl'ther purification.

It is^ the cheapest and most reliable methods ofpurification. chlorination is a iupplement

and oot a substitute for sand filtration

Advantages:

1. It kills pathogenic bacteria.

2. It oxidizes iron, manganese and H2S.

3. It destroys taste and odour producing constituents.

4. It deshoys algae and similar organisms.

5. It aids coagulation.

MECIIANISM OF ACTION: When chlorine is added to water, hydrochloric and

hypochlorous acids are formed . Hcl is neutralized by the attalinity ofwater.

Hypochlorous acid ionizes to form hydrogen ion ar:d hypochloriteion.

HzO +Cl: (^) ---------- (^) HCL+HOCL

HOCL -------------- H+OCL

The disinfectant action ofchlorine is mainly due to hypochlorous acid and to a small

extent due to hypochlorite iron.

Principal of chlorination:

1. Clearance of turbidity

2. Chlorhe demand

3. Break point

4. Residual chlorine

5. Contact period.

Method ofchlorination: u-suany is done with chlorine gas .for this equipment cafled

Peterson's (^) chloroformed (^) is used. chlorine gas is the (^) beit choice sioce (^) i[is cheap, quick in

action, efficient and easy to use. sometime chlorination is done with chloraminl ana

perchloron

Q5, Write^ a^ note on septic^ tank

Ans.

USE (^) OF SEPTIC TANK: (^) Septic (^) tank is a water-tight (^) masonry tank into (^) which

household sewage is admitted for treatment. Excreta and liquid wastes from individual

houses, groups^ ofhouses or institutions can be let into it.

DESIGN FEATURES: The design of a septic tank is as follows:

l. It may contain (^1) or 2 chambers depending on requirement. ?: MITq^ :"p.":ity is^500 gallons^ length is^ twicjthe^ breadth.^ Depth^ is^5 to 7 feet. Liquid depth is 4 feet. Air space (^) between cover and (^) levei of liquid must (^) be I feet.

lnlot-- Osllsl (E ltlran

LiguU

d.plh {

3. Bottom (^) should b".toppirg@ (^) of solids.

4. Inlet and outlet pipes must be submerged.

5. Cover must be made ofconcrete and it must have a manhole.

Q,6 Write^ a^ note on^ Sewage^ and its treatment.

Ans:

Sewage: It is a waste forms a community containing solid and liquid excreta. It is derived

from houses, street and industries. It contains 99.902 water and 0. t % solids.

Method of Sewage Treatment: It is involves two steps:

* Primary Treatrnent.

.1. (^) Secondary Treatment.

r Primary Treatment:

.1. Srlsgdng; Sewage is passed through

a metal screen. Il temoves laxge

objects like pieces ofwood, Garbage and dead animals.

.i. Grit Chamber: Then, the Sewage passed through

Grit Chamber such as

sand and gravel.

* Prlmary Sedimentation: Latter, the swage through a targe primary

sedimentation tant. Organic matter sattel down and it is c-aUia Stuige.

. Secondary Tr€atment: