Psychology and development, Thesis of Physiotherapy

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MSW Paper-III

HUMAN GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT- DEVELOPMENTAL

PSYCHOLOGY

Author Dr. Pratima Kumari Mishra

Syllabus

Unit-I Growth and Development.

Psychology: Relevance of Psychology for social work practice, Meaning of growth and Development, Approaches to study of Human Development, Principles of Human Development, Biological influences of Human Growth and Behaviours, Personality Theories, Psychodynamic and Behavioural Theories.

Unit-II Development Stages:

Physical, Social and Educational Aspects of the following developmental stages

with special reference to Indian conditions (a) infancy (b) Babyhood (c) Early

Childhood (d) Late childhood (e) Adolescence (f) Early Adulthood (h) Middle Age

(i) Old Age.

Unit-III Medical and psychiatric Information.

Concept of health and Hygiene. Communicable and deficiency diseases.

Unit-IV. Concept of normality and abnormality.

Symptoms, causes and treatment of the following Neurosis Psychopathic disorders and Mental retardation role of Social Worker in promoting health.

1.0. OBJECTIVES

After learning this unit, the students will be able to:

 Define Psychology  Importance of Psychology for social work practice  Differentiate between growth and development  Learn about various approaches and principles of human development  Understand the biological influences on human growth and behaviors  Know about various personality theories of growth and development

1.1. PSYCHOLOGY: MEANING AND DEFINITION

Psychology owes its origin from Philosophy. In the year 1950, Rudolf Goeckle first used the word „Psychology‟. The term „Psychology‟ is a combination of two Greek words „Psyche‟ and „Logus‟ which mean „Soul‟ and „Science‟, respectively. It has a long history. A review of the history of psychology reveals that during the Greek period philosophers dominated the field of psychology. At that time, Psychology was not a separate discipline. It got scientific status in the year 1879, when Wilhelm Wundt established the first psychological laboratory at Leipzig in Germany. It has been defined differently by different philosophers and psychologists. The most appropriate definition of psychology has been advocated by R.S. Woodworth (1910-1960). According to him, “Psychology is the scientific study of the activities of the organism in relation to its environment”. Psychology is a positive science which helps to understand, predict and control human bbehaviour. It uses scientific methods to study different activities and experiences systematically. The word „activities‟ includes both external behaviours and internal mental processes. It studies behavior of living organisms, both animals and human beings. It acknowledges the role of environment in shaping the behavior of organisms. Thus, it is concluded that psychology is the scientific study of

behaviours, experiences and mental processes of the organisms in relation to the environment.

1.2. PSYCHOLOGY AND SOCIAL WORK: THE RELEVANCE OF

PSYCHOLOGY TO SOCIAL WORK

An individual lives in a society and different social processes influence the individual‟s attitudes, beliefs and values etc. As individuals interact with the environment and through interaction gain knowledge and experiences, therefore individuals‟ behaviours are moulded by the environment.

Psychology deals with activities of living organisms whereas social work practices concerned with the situations where those activities take place. Psychology can make things easier for social worker in order to understand the situation. It helps the social worker to understand the abilities, attitudes, personality, motivation of the individual and also facilities available in the environment of the person with whom the worker is dealing with. It provides any innovative solutions to reduce potential problems faced by the social work professionals. Social workers can save time and energy to find out the root causes of societal problems by interacting with the person who seeks help, his/her family members, friends etc. Social work concerns not only about the individual who uses the service of the social worker, but it also takes place in a social context. For example, the case of a physically disabled person and the situation where the person stays. The study of the human mind and behavior of the individual help the social worker to design an action plan to help the person. Psychology helps a social work professional service user in

 Understanding different activities of the individual  Knowing the cause of the particular activity  Knowing the positive and negative qualities of the individual  Understanding intelligence, abilities, attitudes, motivation, aptitudes and personality of the person  Understanding actions and interactions of the individual in the peer group and causes of his activities  Learning about the situation where an individual is

In Webster‟s dictionary development is defined as “the series of changes which an organism undergoes in passing from an embryonic stage to maturity.”

In Encyclopedia Britannica is the term development defined as “the progressive change in size, shape and function during the life of an organism by which its genetic potential are translated into functioning adult system.” So, development includes all those psychological changes that take in the functions and activities of different organs of an organism.

Development is continuous and gradual process (Skinner). According to Crow and Crow (1965) development is concerned with growth as well as those changes in behavior which results from environmental situation.”

Thus, development is a process of change in growth and capability over time due to function of both maturation and interaction with the environment.

Table 1.1A: Comparison of Growth and Development

 Growth refers to physiological changes.

 Development refers to overall changes in the individual. It involves changes in an orderly and coherent type towards the goal of maturity.  Changes in the quantitative respect is termed as growth.

 Development changes in the quality along with quantitative aspect.  Growth does not continue throughout life.

 Development continues throughout life.  Growth stops after maturation.

 Development is progressive.

 Growth occurs due to the multiplication of cells.

 Development occurs due to both maturation and interaction with the environment.  Growth is cellular.  Development is organizational.  Growth is one of the part of the developmental process.

 Development is a wider and comprehensive term.

 Growth may be referred to describe the changes in particular aspects of the body and behavior of the organism.

 Development describes the changes in the organism as a whole.

 The changes produced by growth are subjects of measurements. They may be quantified and observable in nature.

 Development brings qualitative changes which are difficult to measure directly. They are assessed through keen observation of behavior in different situations.  Growth may or may not bring development.

 Development is possible without growth.

1.4. PRINCIPLES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

Developmental psychologists believe that knowledge of an accurate pattern of development is fundamental to an understanding of children. There are several basic principles that characterizes the pattern and process of growth and development. These principles describe typical development as a predictable and orderly process. Even though there are individual differences in children‟s personalities, attitudes, behavior and timing of development, the principles and characteristics of development are universal patterns.

1. Development involves change :- The human being is undergoing changes from the moment of conception to the time of death. There are different types of change occur such as, changes in size, proportions, disappearance of old features and acquisition of new features etc. The goal of these developmental changes is self-realization, which Abraham Maslow has labeled as self-actualization. Each individual is equipped with certain abilities and potentialities at birth. By utilizing the innate or inborn abilities one tries to realize and strive for self actualization during the total life period. Children‟s attitude toward change are generally determined by his knowledge about these changes, social attitudes toward this change and the way people of society treats to children when these changes take place.

Changes in the brain and nervous system account largely for maturation. These changes in the brain and nervous system account largely for maturation. The child‟s environment and the learning that occurs as a result of the child‟s experiences largely determine whether the child will reach optimal development. An enriched environment and varied experiences help the child to develop his/her potential.

6. Development is predictable :- Human development is predictable during the life span. Although this development is influenced by both genetic and environmental factors, however, it takes place in a pre-defined manner. Specific areas of development, such as: different aspects of motor development, emotional behavior, speech, social behavior, concept development, goals, intellectual development etc. follow predictable patterns. For example, the growth of the child in height and weight etc. continue up to a certain age. In general, it is also found that all children follow a commonality in the development periods of life. All children generally grow following the periods like prenatal period and postnatal period. The postnatal period includes infancy, babyhood, childhood, puberty and so on.
7. Early development is more critical than later development :- Milton writes “ The childhood shows the man, as morning shows the day.” Similarly, Erikson views “childhood is the scene of man‟s beginning as man.” He explains that if parents gratify the needs of the child for food, attention and love etc. , his perception towards people and situation remains positive throughout his life. He develops positive attitudes, feels secure, emotionally stable and adjust well with the environment. If negative experiences occur during early life of the child, maladjustments may take place. Glueck concludes that delinquents can be identified as early as 2- years of age. Different researchers view that the preschool years age are most important years of development as basic foundation is laid down during this period which is difficult to change.
8. Development involves Social expectations :- In every society there are certain rules, standards and traditions which everyone is expected to follow. Development is determined by social norms and expectations of behaviors form the individuals. Children learn customs, traditions and values of the

society and also what behaviors are expected from them. They realize from the approval or disapproval of their behavior. Social expectations are otherwise known as “developmental tasks”. Havinghurst defines developmental task as a “task which arises at or about a certain period in the life of an individual. Developmental tasks arise mainly (a) as a result of physical maturation, (b) form the cultural pressures of society, (c) out of the personal values and aspirations of the individual. The developmental tasks remain the same from one generation after another in a particular culture. As societies are evolving, changing traditions and cultural patterns of a society are learned automatically by children during their development process. These developmental tasks help in motivating children to learn as well as help parents to guide their children.

9. Development has potential hazards :- Development may be hampered by various hazards. Hazards may be of physical, environmental or psychological type. These hazards may be originated from the environment in which the child grows or due to hereditary factors. They have negative impact on physical as well as sociopsychological development of the child. The growth of the child may be retarded, he may be an aggressive person or he may encounter adjustment problems. For example, if a child is slurring or stammering and parents neglect the child, the child may continue with this problem.
10. Happiness varies at different periods of development :- Happiness varies at different periods in the development process. Childhood is the happiest period of life and puberty is the most unhappy. The patterns of happiness vary from child to child and it is influenced by the rearing process of the child. Paul B. Baltes stated six principles of development of life span approach. The six principles of development are mentioned below:
    1. Development is a lifelong process- Development is a process which continues throughout life. It begins at birth and ends in death of an individual.
    2. Development includes both gain and loss during life span. The child may develop in one area and lose in another area.
    3. Development is influenced by the biological factor and environmental situations- The human development is influenced by

Fig. 1.1: Summary of Principles of Human Development

1.5. FACTORS AFFECTING HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

Human development is the process in which the changes occur in all the aspects of an organism from conception to death. It is a natural process for each and every child to grow. But it is observed that all children do not grow in the similar fashion. Some children‟s physical growth occur earlier than others, some

Individual differences in the development process

Development depends on maturation and learning

Development is predictable

Early development is more critical than later development

Development involves social expectation

Development has potential hazards

Happiness varies at different periods of development

are physically stronger than others, some are taller than others and so on. So far as mental development is concerned, some children have better cognitive ability, memory, reasoning, thinking ability etc. than others. All children also do not have same type of intelligence. Some have more musical talents, others have more intrapersonal intelligence, others also have more linguistic abilities etc. So, children differ from each other because several factors influence on their development. Some of the important factors have been enumerated below:

1. Hereditary Factors :- Heredity exerts an influence on human development. The child carries genetic endowments from his/her parents. It is genetically transmitted characteristics from one generation to the next. The physical characteristics like height, weight, eye color etc. and psychological characteristics such as intelligence, personality, creativity and so on are innately determined and hereditary. The genetic code provides the base on which brain and body grow and manifest in observable appearance and behavior.
2. Environmental Factors :- Another important factor of human development is the environment where an individual lives. The child lives and grows in his environment. Environment consists of a wide range of stimuli and it provides the necessary input and experiential base for development of the child. Enrichment or impoverishment of the environment would produce differences in his abilities. For example, a child may have inherited music talent from his parents through transmission of genes, but he may not excel in music field if he does not get the proper environment and support to develop his innate ability.
3. Home Environment :- Home environment exerts tremendous influence on child‟s understanding of the external world. It builds self-concept and prepares him to face the external world. The child begins to acquire knowledge through interaction with parents and other family members. During his early years of development, the behaviours of the child are modulated by the home environment. The environment of the family can be supportive or stressful for the child. If it is supportive, warm and harmonious environment, the child develops normally. In unsupportive and stressful home environment, broken families or uncaring parents in the family, children may develop as maladjusted persons.

of the child and the next step is to provide adequate opportunities to develop the same. If proper identification of the ability is not possible and adequate facilities are not available to the child, then his innate ability may not be developed. Thus, adequate education and training have influence on human development.

BIOLOGICAL INFLUENCES ON HUMAN GROWTH AND

BEHAVIORS

Human development is a result of the interaction of biological, cognitive, socio-emotional and ecological processes. Genetic factors are the basic framework of the biological processes of development. For example, developments of brain, heart, lungs, nervous system etc. ; depend largely on the hereditary characteristics of the individual. Similarly, changes in the height, weight, sex characteristics are parts of the biological processes of development. Each and every individual tries to keep himself/herself both physically and mentally healthy. There are differences among individuals due to the biological basis of self-preservation. For example, a child who is physically stronger can overcome various problems that come across in the growing up than the less physically strong child. Similarly, the child who is emotionally stronger and stable can face various problems in life than the other child. Thus, physical as well as emotional strength relates to genetic factors. Due to the genetic factor some children have the desire to live longer while other children have the death wish is stronger. The biological influences are also observed in the needs of the children. For example, a child needs food when he is hungry, he requires water when he is thirsty and so on. These needs are associated with preservation of one‟s life. But how these needs are fulfilled depends upon socio-cultural influences. The biology of a person is interlinked with his behaviors. Thus, both body and mind are interdependent. Physical damage can result in mental problems and mental problems may affect physical well-being. As human being lives in a society, with his biological endowments he interacts with different stimuli of the environment. Social traditions, culture, beliefs, nationality and others influence human behavior. Both culture and behavior of the individual are inseparable. Thus, human

development and behaviors are combination of biological, social and psychological influences. For example, a child has talent in mathematics by birth due to hereditary factor but if the environment does support to develop his talent, the innate ability may not develop properly.

Characteristics of Biological Influences on Human Growth and Behaviors :- The human growth and behaviors can be understood from the characteristics mentioned below:

1. Behaviors are Reproduced in Successive Generations : Behaviors in species are handed over from generation to generation. In other words, the particular behavior continues over several generations. For example, goats live to move in flock.
2. Change in Biological Process determines Change in Behaviors : The changes in human growth and behaviors are determined by changes in biological processes. If there is a change in biological structure or process that leads to changes in human growth and behaviors also. For example, if there is damage in a particular area of the brain of a person, the behaviors of that person may change as he may express more aggressiveness or emotionality. Similarly, the intake of certain drugs may change the brain chemistry which have produced behavioral changes of human beings.
3. Behaviors run in families/ Behaviors are transmitted in families : It has been observed in families that if a person in the family has mental disorder, other members of the same family may have same problem to some extent because they carry some similar genes which are transmitted over generations.
4. Genes are Evolutionary : Behavioral changes occur through evolutions of genes. The genes of chimpanzees and human beings are almost similar. So, chimpanzees are closest to human beings and their characteristics and behaviors are more or less similar to humans which can be traced on the basis of history of evolution of genes.

1.6.1. THEORIES OF PERSONALITY

Personality theories have been classified into four groups. They are:

1. Trait theories
2. Psychodynamic theories
3. Behavioral theories
4. Humanistic theories

Trait Theories

Trait theories attempt to describe personality as the sum of certain traits. According to Kimble and Garmezy “trait is a stable and enduring attribute of a person which is revealed consistently in different situations.” Allport believed that the pattern of these traits is unique in each individual and determines his behaviours. Therefore, traits are consistent personality characteristics and behaviours manifestated in different situations. Trait theorists assumed that all people possess certain traits, but the degree to which a particular trait applies to a specific person varies and can be quantified. It is necessary for trait theorists is to identify specific primary traits in order to describe personality. For example, If we compare the personalities of two persons, one being extrovert and another being introvert. The extrovert person would be social, happy go lucky and would make friends easily while the introvert‟s behaviour would be shyness, lack of initiatives in social interactions etc.

Gordon Allport suggested that there are three major traits, viz. cardinal, central and secondary traits in personality. The special trait which provides uniqueness to the person is known as cardinal trait. The cardinal trait is observed in almost all the behaviours throughout one‟s life. A child who becomes the monitor of the class since beginning tries to be a leader in the state. Central trait refers to the major characteristics of an individual. These traits make up the core of personality. Central traits, such as honesty and sociability, they usually number from five to ten in any one person. Secondary traits are characteristics that affect behaviours of a person in fewer situations. These traits are less enduring. For example, a person is invited to attend a marriage party, He may wear sherwani for this purpose but in general he may like to wear casuals.

Personality psychologist Raymond Cattell (1965) viewed that personality is made of two types of traits – the surface traits and the source traits. He suggested that sixteen pairs of source traits represent the basic dimensions of personality. He called source traits as the core factors of personality and they are underlying internal traits responsible for behaviours. On the other hand, surface traits are some general traits and are possessed by all which are observable patterns of behaviour. He conducted research on these surface traits and applied factor analysis.

Another trait theorist Hans Eysenck (1992, 1994, 1995) also used factor analysis method to identify patterns of traits to discuss about the nature of personality. He viewed that personality could be described in terms of just three major dimensions: extroversion, neuroticism and psychoticism. The extraversion dimension relates to the degree of sociability, the neurotic dimension emphasizes emotional stability and psychoticism encompasses to the degree to which reality is distorted. Eysenck suggested that behaviour of a person can be predicted accurately in a variety of situations by evaluating along these three dimensions.

The most influential trait approach contends that five traits or factors – called the “Big-Five” – lie at the core of personality. Now-a-days the “Big-Five” represent the best description of personality traits. The “Big-Five” factors are : (a) Extroversion, (b) Agreeableness, (c) Conscientiousness, (d) Emotional stability and (e) openness to experience.

Extroversion refers to a personality dimension describing someone who is sociable, gregarious and assertive. Agreeableness describes someone who is good natured cooperative and trusting. Conscientiousness is a measure of reliability that describes someone who is responsible, dependable, persistent and organised. Emotional stability characterises someone as calm, self-confident, secure. The person with high negative scores can be nervous, anxious, depressed and insecure. Openness to experience dimension of personality characterizes someone in terms of imagination, sensitivity and curiosity.

Trait theories have also been criticized by some theorists. They have cautioned that personality traits will not be expressed in the same way across different situations. Walter Mischel has discussed about trait-situation interaction, in which the situation is assumed to influence the way in which a trait is expressed.