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FALL 2010
Miranda Lin is an assistant professor and Thomas A. Lucey is an associate professor, both in the Department of Curriculum and Instruction of the College of Education at Illinois State University, Normal, Illinois.
Individual and Group Reflection Strategies
What We Learned from Preservice Teachers
Miranda Lin & Thomas A. Lucey
develop positive relationships with those whom they identify as possessing common positive characteristics (“in-groups”); how- ever, this disconnection seeds tendencies of alienation towards those lacking these simi- larities, and breed feelings of hate through attitudes of moral superiority, perceived threat, common goals (perceptions of in- terdependence), common values and social comparisons, and power politics (Brewer, 1999). Studies indicate that providing a sense of security eases negativism towards out-groups (Mikulincer & Shaver, 2001). Teachers’ beliefs and attitudes relate to their lived experiences (Lin, 2008). The influences of sociocultural, historical, and political contexts in which PSTs grew up are closely related to their efficacy in teach- ing. Lin, Lake, and Rice (2008) propose that it is important for PSTs to experience diverse settings while constantly engaging in internalized dialogues in order to help them make connections between their per- sonal experiences and diversity issues. Internalized dialogues require fram- ing and reframing one’s thinking in order to improve upon children’s learning is basic to the active process of reflection. Connelly and Clandinin’s (1994) work with PSTs shows how they develop a deeper under- standing of themselves and their practice through the process of reflection. Yet, one of the hardest things to do is to reflect on personal cultural values and understand that many ideas held as truths are cultur- ally based. Contextual influences on dispositions and ideas represent a human condition. Just as experiences provide the bases for teacher beliefs and attitudes, they also influence those of the students. There are a multitude of factors that may influence behaviors (Banks, 2004). Koppelman, with Goodhart’s (2005) recommendation that teachers try to address causes of student misbehaviors, rather punish the misbe- haviors themselves, provides a respectful approach to validating the background of
Introduction
As classrooms become more diverse, one of the necessary goals of teacher edu- cation programs is to prepare preservice teachers (PSTs) to work with children of diverse populations (Cochran-Smith, 2000; Ladson-Billings, 1995; Sleeter, 2001). PSTs who derive largely from a dominant White culture will clearly face this chal- lenge. One effective approach used to assist PSTs to grasp the issues of cultural awareness and diversity involves the use of reflection to consider one’s identity in relationship to others. Garmon (2005) argues that “regular reflection on one’s teaching is considered an essential practice for teachers, and it is equally important in developing multicultural knowledge and sensitivity” (p. 278). As a result, reflective thinking and teaching represent processes that require PSTs to consider the nature of their work and to use logical and rational analyses of their own teaching. Howard (2003) and Milner (2005) claim that PSTs should also reflect upon what they perceive, fear, hear, gain, or confront. Kelchtermans (2007) finds that reflection enables teach- ers to perceive themselves in relationship to various professional systems. Thus, reflection represents a learning process that, with guidance and practice, enables PST’s awareness of professional place and guides their processing of related emotional issues. Yet the manners in which teacher educators structure learning relate to the patterns of reflection that occur. Recent studies (Lin, 2009; Lucey, Ransdell, & Anderson, 2008) describe the patterns of reflections among PSTs in their efforts
to clarify the socio-cultural identities of themselves and others. Lin employed Schmidt’s (1998, 1999, 2001) ABCs model of cultural understanding to examine the cultural dispositions of PSTs and related them to attitudes of their peers. Lucey et al. assigned PSTs to randomly assigned groups and analyzed their guided reflec- tions, composed at the end of the semester. They observed that the PSTs considered biological, psychological, and sociological relationships based on utilitarian (e.g., work ethic), rather than ethnic-racial pat- terned principles. Lin’s (2009) and Lucey et al.’s (2008) efforts employed two different approaches toward engendering multicultural aware- ness. The former employed individual processes and reflection while the other employed collaborative efforts. As these two studies yielded different PST views of cultural identities and relationships, we consider it appropriate to examine litera- ture into the processes for PST’s formation of cultural dispositions and their relation- ships to these works. To that end, this article provides an interpretation of literature relating to these issues. It begins by considering the condi- tions that shape the general formation of attitudes towards others and how these processes relate to the preconceptions of PST’s. It follows this discourse by discussing results of efforts to sensitize PST’s to needs of those who are ethnically/racially different from them. Next, it reviews the works of Lin (2009) and Lucey et al. (2008) and relates them to the literature. Finally, it provides ideas for designing successful interventions and provides ideas for their research.
Formation and Consequences
of Dispositions towards Others
Attitudes towards cultural groups rep- resent a complex phenomena that involves many different influences. Brewer’s (1999) review of literature finds that individuals
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the student to reshape his or her disposi- tion towards a healthy outcome. The teacher’s cultural awareness may relate to a student’s academic success or failure (Irvine, 2003). Creating a respect- ful classroom environment requires a willingness and ability to use knowledge of student cultural context to develop classroom policies and procedures while respond appropriately to student needs. Facilitating PST’s awareness of students’ cultural backgrounds and their relation- ship to learning represents a crucial pro- cess towards cessation of the conditions that cause recurrence of structured social inequities (Gay, 2000).
Efforts to Sensitize PSTs
It is believed that PSTs are able to change their perceptions and attitudes toward children of diverse backgrounds (e.g., Brown, 2004; Causey, Thomas, & Armento, 2000; Martin & Van Gunten, 2002; Peralta-Nash, 2003; Trent & Dixon, 2004). The following sections outline ap- proaches used to assist PSTs process cul- tural awareness and diversity issues into individual- and group- based approaches (see Table 1).
Individual-based Approaches
One of the strategies employed is the ABCs of Cultural Understanding and Com- munication (Schmidt, 1998). This approach focuses on working with individuals to real- ize and overcome their patterns of bias. The far reaching potential of the ABCs model has been documented by teacher educators across disciplines (e.g., Lenski, Crumpler, Sallworth, & Crawford, 2005; Pattnaik, 2006; Xu, 2000). The purpose of the ABC’s model is to enable both students and PSTs to realize the influence of culture in their own and that of others (Moll, 2000). This model greatly emphasizes the im- portance of self-reflection. Pattnaik argues that it helps PSTs “critically reflect over white privileges and racism in the Ameri- can society and the influence of “white- ness” on self and minority communities” (p. 117). Reflective thinking and reflective teaching involve processes that require PSTs to seriously consider the nature of their work and to use logical and rational analyses of their own teaching. The ABCs model provides a foundation for individu- als to critically examine, document, and think through their thought processes in order to be aware of their attitudes, beliefs, and life experiences. Though reading theoretical literature
is necessary for PSTs, practical field-based experiences are imperative. Service learn- ing is one such experience. According to Kaye (2004), a service learning project can be classified as one of four different ap- proaches. They are: (1) direct service: chil- dren’s service directly affects and involves the recipients; (2) indirect service: children do not provide service to an individual but to the community as a whole; (3) advocacy: intent is to create awareness of or promote action on an issue of public interest, and (4) research: involves children finding, gathering, and reporting on information in the public interest. Service learning is tool that provides PSTs with both a general and concrete foundation about how to make sense of differences, social injustice, and their roles as change agents (Reneer, Price, Keene, & Little, 2004). Service learning also provides PSTs with opportunities to develop pedagogical skills and to confront culturally different stereotypes and beliefs (Pang & Park, 2003). Engaging PSTs in service learning also allows teachers educators to make the connections between theory and practice, raises their level of multicultural consciousness, provides them with insight into the hierarchy and political agendas driving educational policy, increases their ability to negotiate and form partnerships with culturally diverse groups in the school environment and encourages the practice and educational equity. (Brown & Howard, 2005, p. 7)
Group-based Processes Based on their review of literature, Park and Judd (2005) argue that social grouping represents a necessary part of hu- man existence, and thus efforts to prompt lessening or elimination of grouping may have negative outcomes. Diversity repre- sents a aspect of society that needs to be viewed in a positive perspective. Diamond’s (2005) cogent work, which describes the urgency of global societal stakeholders to
collaborate and devise mutually supportive solutions to the environmental predica- ment that exists, illustrates the beneficial outcomes that could result through respect of different knowledge bases. Park and Judd reference several models (mutual differentiation, common in-group identity, multimodal, and multicultural). These approaches require that different groups work with each other to achieve common goals or to recognize the values of their differences. Within education, group study has been shown to yield positive psychological outcomes when members work together to perform as a unit (Petress, 2004; Tuck- man & Jensen, 1977). Using reflection as a process to explore these experiences rep- resents a viable professional development possibility. Gay and Kirkland (2003) iden- tify several general obstacles to reflection that include ignorance of reflection itself, absence of quality reflection opportunity, and the standardization professional ex- pectations. They also identify specific obstacles (student diversion, avoidance, and superficial concern). Cochran-Smith’s (1995) small group work, which found that PSTs experienced difficulty affirming their students’ cultural identities when the teachers could not af- firm their own, presents an example of these struggles. Both the nature and processes of teacher preparations may relate to these challenges. By interpreting teacher educa- tion in a broad sense, programs may enable candidates’ holistic perspective of social relationships and model the authentic in- structional strategies that could replenish the social capital that eludes 21st^ century society (Putnam, 2000). Part of this process requires critical analysis of candidates’ clinical settings (Darling-Hammond, Ham- merness, with Grossman, Rust, & Shulman,
- to interpret whether or not classroom conditions perpetuate the systemic struc- tural problems that perpetuate cultural inequities.
Table 1 Approaches to Assist Preservice Teachers Process Cultural Awareness
Approach ` An Example Components Individual-Based ABCs Model Self-reflection Approaches Realizing influence of culture Practical, field-based experiences, such as service learning Group-Based Mutual Group study Processes Differentiation Small group work Reflection Analysis of clinical settings
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