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CURRICULUM PLANNING
This chapter provides information on the process of curriculum planning as an important phase of curriculum development. In this chapter, you should be able to
- discuss different curriculum sources and influences;
- analyze different levels of curriculum planning; and
- identify different roles of teachers and school administrators in curriculum planning. Curriculum Sources and Influences Tyler (1949) identified three major sources of curriculum: subject matter, society, and learners. Accordingly, these curriculum sources need to be considered and examined to identify the four elements of the curriculum: goals, content, learning experiences, and evaluation. It is important to understand the nature of the subject matter in order to provide knowledge and skills that are essential to the nature of the discipline. This also helps in selecting and designing curriculum contents. Likewise, it is important to have a clear understanding of the nature of society in developing a curriculum. This provides a more comprehensive idea of the needs, demands, and problems of the society, and the available resources that can be utilized in the development and implementation of the curriculum (Tyler, 1949). In short, society, as one of the curriculum sources, provides information about the context in which the curriculum will be used. This is important to make the curriculum more relevant and responsive. Understanding the nature of the learners is also important in curriculum development. Understanding the learners includes knowing their needs, nature, and interests, learning styles, and thinking styles. It also includes knowing the various issues and problems about them. The learners are the direct subjects of the school curriculum. Hence, making the learners as one of the curriculum sources is important in selecting the learning experiences for the curriculum (Tyler, 1949). Society as Source of Curriculum Society is an important source of curriculum. Teachers need to understand the cultural, socio-economic, and political conditions of the people. Understanding the context is important in developing a relevant and responsive curriculum (Tyler, 1949, Nicholls & Nicholls, 1978). It is useful in selecting curriculum goals and objectives, content, and learning experiences (Taba, 1962, Stark & Lattuca, 1997, Oliva, 2005) There are many changes in society that need to be considered in the curriculum. Science and technology continue to influence our everyday life as new science findings, new technology, and new information come in almost every single minute of a day. The new world of economy also has its own issues and demands. For example, 21st century skills and new forms
of knowledge should be developed in the curriculum in order to develop a world-class workforce. In addition, the society is becoming multilingual and multicultural. Developing cultural understanding and socio-cultural consciousness among the learners is becoming a necessity. Other pressing social issues like climate change, security problems, diseases, poverty, and many others also affect the everyday life of people. Educators and schools face the challenge whether they will simply respond to the needs and demands of the society or have education through its curriculum in order to develop or create the kind of society that everyone wishes to have. There is a need to put a balance between pursuing the utopian goals of education and its practical or economic goals. Activity 11. Reflect on and address the following:
- Identify different social issues, needs, and demands that should be considered in the curriculum.
- Discuss how these social issues, needs, and demands may influence the curriculum in terms of: ● Aims, goals, and objectives ● Content ● Learning experiences ● Evaluation Learners as Source of Curriculum Knowledge about the learners is one of the major sources of the curriculum Although the curriculum content is set by the Department of Education (DepEd). Commission on Higher Education (CHED), or the Technical Education Skills Development Authority (TESDA), educators and curriculum developers have tried to align the curriculum to the needs and nature of the students. This process is done when faculty members plan their individual syllabi, unit plans, and lesson plans as an interpretation of the intended curriculum. As students come from different provinces, they have different cultures, languages, learning styles, needs, and types and levels of motivation. The students are also different in terms of socio-economic status and educational backgrounds (public or private). For these, the students, as one major source of curriculum, are supported by several curriculum scholars and are well-represented in their curriculum development models (Taba, 1962; Wheeler, 1967; Walker, 1972, Skilbeck, 1976; Nicholls, 1978; Print, 1993; Stark & Lattuca, 1997; Oliva, 2005). Activity 12. Reflect on and address the following:
- Identify learners' needs and issues that should be considered in curriculum development.
Curriculum Influences Aside from the major curriculum sources, Stark and Lattuca (1997) identified three major factors that influence curriculum development external, internal, and organizational influences (see Figure 2) Stark and Lattuca used the term curriculum influences to refer to these three factors that are very influential in curriculum development. According to them, these curriculum influences affect the whole academic plan that incorporates a total blueprint for action, including the purposes, activities, and ways of measuring success. Figure 2. Factors Affecting Academic Planning (Stark & Lattuca, 1997) Understanding the different curriculum influences is useful in knowing the different factors that are needed to be considered in developing a curriculum. It provides the sources of data and information for developing curriculum. Knowing these curriculum influences is useful in making the curriculum more relevant and responsive to the educational system of the Philippines. A research on curriculum influences conducted by Pawilen (2011) shows the results of the Focus Group Discussion (FGD) with the faculty members and administrators who identified several curriculum influences that they always consider whenever they plan, design, develop, revise, and evaluate the curriculum. These identified curriculum influences are shown in Table
- They affect curriculum processes at the school level. Table 1. Curriculum Influences ● Students/Learners ● College Philosophy, Vision, and Mission
● K-12 Basic Education Curriculum ● Admission and Retention Policies, and School Rules Faculty Members ● School Administrators ● Requirements from Government Agencies ● Licensure Examinations (for Higher Education) Accreditation Standards ● Market Demands ● Alumni and Funding Sources ● Media and Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) Church and Church- related Agencies (for religious schools). ● School Facilities and Other Resources Other Disciplines or Courses and Programs offered by the School ● Student Services Students The students are considered as the most influential among the different curriculum influences especially in designing the implemented curriculum. Learners have different interests, needs, tálents, abilities, learning styles, and thinking preferences. All these are important in course planning. Teachers believe that the students could learn more if their interest and learning styles are considered when planning their courses. Many students want a variety of learning experiences in their classes and practical application of their lessons in real-life situations. They came from different families with different cultures, religious affiliations, beliefs, language, and socio-economic status. When teachers plan their courses, they always keep these in mind. They recognize that their previous experiences with the students, including the students' performance in class, are sources of valuable information about the students' capabilities. Many teachers observe during their classes that students' backgrounds, especially their demographic characteristics, influence their attitude and performance toward learning. Thus, students bring with them their culture in the school. For college, the academic background of the students is influential in curriculum planning. As students took up their basic education in either public or private schools in their provinces, their academic skills and learning habits differ from those of the city For instance, some students have poor communication skills because of poor background in English education in their basic education School's Vision, Mission, and Core Values The school vision, mission, and core values are very influential factors in developing the curriculum. They are the fundamental bases in developing the four elements of curriculum goals and objectives, content, learning experiences, and evaluation. These three factors are included in all the lesson plans or course syllabi to ensure that the core values of the institution are included in the syllabi.
Teachers, as recognized by Stark and Latucca (1997), are a major influence in curriculum development. They are the key implementers of the curriculum. The success of any curriculum and instruction highly depends on them. They need to be empowered to make curricula and innovations in their own schools. Teachers are expected to be experts in the content of the subjects they teach. They should also be experts in pedagogy. School Administrators and Board of Trustees The influence of school officials and the school bureaucracy in curriculum processes were recognized by several curriculum scholars like Wiles and Bandi (2006). and Stark and Latucca (1997), among others School administrators, including the board of trustees, play an important role in providing curriculum leadership in schools, colleges, and universities. Apart from setting and approving rules for the school, they administer the planning, implementation, and evaluation of the curriculum. The administrators then serve as the curriculum and instructional leaders. They provide administrative and leadership support for the implementation of the curriculum Their abilities and skills as curriculum leaders and managers are essential in curriculum development, implementation, and evaluation (Wilds & Bondi, 2006) Oliva (2005) considered them as part of the entire team of curriculum workers in an institution The academic preparation and previous experiences of the administrators can also be noted to influence the development of the curriculum, Accrediting Agencies Accrediting agencies are equally influential in basic education and in higher education Like the DepEd and CHED, the accrediting agencies set the necessary standards for curriculum, instruction, faculty, and facilities, and influence how the curricular programs are governed. Accrediting agencies determine the quality of the courses being offered in an institution. As such, many schools, especially private schools try their best to improve the governance and implementation of their various curricular and co-curricular programs. Some accrediting agencies in the Philippines are the Association of Christian Schools, Colleges, and Universities Accrediting Agency Incorporation (ACSCU-AAI), Philippine Accrediting Association of Schools, Colleges, and Universities (PAASCU). and the Accrediting Agency for Chartered Colleges and Universities in the Philippines (AACCUP). These accrediting bodies are in charge of evaluating the quality of education for each member institution based on criteria set by the accrediting agency. Government Policies and Agencies The respondents identified government policies and agencies as most influential in curriculum planning and development. In basic education, the Department of Education issues Department Orders (DOS) and memoranda that serve as guides for all public and private schools in the country. The Department of Education also prescribes the official curriculum for basic education and issues the guidelines for operations for private schools.
For tertiary education, the CHED, through its series of memorandum orders, prescribes the minimum general education and professional courses, course credits, and course descriptions to be taken by the students. The CHED also prescribes the faculty qualifications, facilities, and other requirements for the implementation and administration of the courses. Market Demands (General) Market demands or the needs of the society are very influential in planning and developing curriculum. It is imperative that students are prepared in terms of knowledge, values, and skills to meet the needs and demands of different institutions in the society. For example, graduates are expected to develop or possess 21st century skills. They are expected to be technologically literate. They are also expected to develop various literacies including functional literacy Schools are expected to develop graduates that can be assets and good citizens of the society. Alumni The alumni are also considered as one of the external influences on curriculum development. The alumni are very helpful in terms of donating money to support programs for students, faculty scholarships, professorial chairs, facilities, and financing students activities. Besides financial help, their comments or their evaluation feedback based on their previous experiences as students are very useful information. for improving the implemented curriculum of the school. The alumni are the living testimony of the curriculum or the quality of education offered by a particular school. Media and Information and Communications Technologies (ICT) Media and information and Communications Technologies (ICT) are two of the external curriculum influences. The presence of technology, especially the Internet, enables students and teachers to access almost all the information they need for teaching and learning. This allows students and faculty members to access online journals, papers, and other information from the Internet to be used for. teaching and learning. Technology connects the school to the global community. As much as ICT is changing the landscape of schooling, it is also changing how the courses are planned and implemented, especially how the content of the curriculum will be put together. Although it is expensive to have full ICT integration in schools, school administrators try their best to achieve this goal Computers, LCD projectors, Internet facilities, and other forms of technology are made available for instructional purposes in the school. The Church and Church-related Agencies
makes us realize that the purpose of the curriculum is not just to develop knowledge and skills but for the holistic development of every learner ❖ Knowledge about the society - helps us to realize that a curriculum must be made relevant and responsive to the needs and demands of the society. A curriculum should be context-based and it must uphold social values and edify democratic principles of the society. ❖ Knowledge about the discipline of subject matter - helps us to understand the different disciplines, subjects, and academic fields. It enables every curriculum worker to understand essential contents that should be covered in a particular discipline. There are also different curriculum influences: organizational, internal, and external influences. Understanding these curriculum influences helps us appreciate the educational and social context where each curriculum is developed and implemented.
