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Critical Thinking Reason and Evidence D265 Flashcards.docx, Exams of Nursing

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Critical Thinking Reason and Evidence D265 Flashcards.docx

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Critical Thinking: Reason and Evidence D265 Flashcards

"A recent study found that dairy milk is healthier than soy milk. But that finding is

obviously false because the study was conducted by the dairy industry."

Which fallacy of relevance is depicted in this example?

- Post hoc ergo propter

- Irrelevant appeal

- Begging the question

- Genetic fallacy - ANSGenetic fallacy

"If you are not at the game rooting for our high school football team, then you must not

have any school spirit."

Which two statements accurately describe this argument? Choose 2 answers.

- The argument includes a false dichotomy..

- The argument assumes the truth of the conclusion in the premise.

- The argument contains black-and-white thinking.

- The argument mistakes causation for correlation. - ANS- The argument includes a

false dichotomy.

- The argument contains black-and-white thinking.

"Since we cannot go out until the restaurant opens, and given that we are trying to save

money, we should just hang out here until closer to dinner."

Which statements are the premises of the following argument? Choose 2 answers.

- We cannot go out until the restaurant opens.

- We are trying to save money.

- We should just hang out here until closer to dinner.

- We can have a good time without spending money. - ANS- We cannot go out until the

restaurant opens.

- We are trying to save money.

A formal fallacy concerns _______, but an informal fallacy concerns _______. - ANSthe

structure of an argument

By definition, a formal fallacy concerns the structure of an argument and an informal

fallacy concerns the information contained in the argument's structure.

A formal fallacy is a type of _______. - ANSBad argument structure

Formality is associated with structure.

A military veteran is engaged in a heated debate about national security with a reporter

who has never served in the military.

Which response best enables the veteran to undermine the reporter's argument?

Partial preview of the text

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"A recent study found that dairy milk is healthier than soy milk. But that finding is obviously false because the study was conducted by the dairy industry." Which fallacy of relevance is depicted in this example?

Post hoc ergo propter
Irrelevant appeal
Begging the question
Genetic fallacy - ANSGenetic fallacy "If you are not at the game rooting for our high school football team, then you must not have any school spirit." Which two statements accurately describe this argument? Choose 2 answers.
The argument includes a false dichotomy..
The argument assumes the truth of the conclusion in the premise.
The argument contains black-and-white thinking.
The argument mistakes causation for correlation. - ANS- The argument includes a false dichotomy.
The argument contains black-and-white thinking. "Since we cannot go out until the restaurant opens, and given that we are trying to save money, we should just hang out here until closer to dinner." Which statements are the premises of the following argument? Choose 2 answers.
We cannot go out until the restaurant opens.
We are trying to save money.
We should just hang out here until closer to dinner.
We can have a good time without spending money. - ANS- We cannot go out until the restaurant opens.
We are trying to save money. A formal fallacy concerns _______, but an informal fallacy concerns _______. - ANSthe structure of an argument By definition, a formal fallacy concerns the structure of an argument and an informal fallacy concerns the information contained in the argument's structure. A formal fallacy is a type of _______. - ANSBad argument structure Formality is associated with structure. A military veteran is engaged in a heated debate about national security with a reporter who has never served in the military. Which response best enables the veteran to undermine the reporter's argument?

Pointing out that the premise of the reporter's argument is flawed
Pointing out the reporter's well-known reputation for taking faulty positions
Pointing out the reporter's affiliation with news networks that are known to have a political slant to their coverage
Pointing out that the reporter has never served in the military - ANSPointing out that the premise of the reporter's argument is flawed A pen is a writing utensil. Sometimes, animals are kept in a pen. Thus, sometimes, animals are kept in a writing utensil. What fallacy is found in this argument?
The fallacy of equivocation
The fallacy of begging the question
The fallacy of sweeping generalization
The appeal to popularity fallacy - ANSThe fallacy of equivocation Ad Hominem Fallacy (Latin for "to the man") - ANSA fallacy of logic in which a person's character or motive is attacked instead of the person's argument Aircraft and ships have gone missing all over the planet under unknown circumstances, but a number of these disappearances have occurred in an area of the North Atlantic Ocean known as the Bermuda Triangle. So the claim that the Bermuda Triangle is haunted must be true. Which fallacy of weak induction best describes this argument?
Burden of proof shifting
Slippery slope
Appeal to ignorance
Texas sharpshooter - ANSTexas sharpshooter Algorithm bubble - ANSThe curated and personalized version of online reality that a website shows you when you log on. Alief - ANSAn automatic belief-like attitude that can explain how our instinctual responses can conflict with our reasoned-out beliefs. All dogs are cute. Ginger is a dog. Therefore, Ginger is cute. Which type of reasoning is illustrated in this example?
Deductive
Invalid
Inductive
Abductive - ANSDeductive

Which phrases contain conclusions of this argument? Choose 2 answers.

Flying cars will relieve traffic congestion
The research and development of such vehicles will be expensive
The government should encourage industry to develop flying cars
Banks should help fund industry research - ANS- The government should encourage industry to develop flying cars
Banks should help fund industry research Cogency - ANSStrong inductive arguments with all true premises are cogent. Cognitive bias - ANSThe way we naturally categorize and make sense of the world around us. Complex propositions - ANSComplex propositions have internal logical structure, meaning they are composed of simple propositions. Whether they are true or false depends on whether their parts are true or false. Conclusion Indicators - ANSTherefore, so, it follows that, hence, thus, entails that, we may conclude that, implies that, wherefore, as a result Conner and Miller are discussing the topic of intelligent life in other solar systems. Conner asks Miller, "Do you believe that there is intelligent life in the Alpha Centauri planetary system?" Miller replies, "I don't know that there isn't intelligent life there. There's no proof that there isn't. So, I believe there is intelligent life in that planetary system." Which fallacy did Miller commit?
The false dilemma fallacy
The fallacy of appeal to ignorance
The fallacy of begging the question
The fallacy of appeal to the people - ANSThe fallacy of appeal to ignorance Consider the following argument: If Jones is a baseball player, then Jones is an athlete. Jones is a baseball player. Thus, Jones is an athlete. Which kind of argument is this?
A conditional proposition
A valid argument
A strong argument
An invalid argument - ANSA valid argument

Consider the following argument: Smith inspected 990 jellybeans in the jar. Each of the beans Smith inspected is red. Therefore, all 1000 of the beans in the jar are red. Which kind of argument is this?

A strong argument
Deductive argument
A weak argument
A valid argument - ANSA strong argument Deduction - ANSarguments where the premises guarantee or necessitate the conclusion — mathematical arguments, logical arguments, arguments from definition Did the company really close that deal? It has had a great year. Where is the president right now? Let's go ask whether the deal was closed. In the above paragraph, which sentence expresses a proposition?
Where is the president right now?
Did the company really close that deal?
Let's go ask whether the deal was closed.
It has had a great year. - ANSIt has had a great year. Dogs are bred for many different purposes. Poodles, for example, make good house pets, while German shepherds and other large breeds can be used for home protection. Therefore, because it is important to select the right breed for your needs, you should carefully research dog breeds to make the right choice. Which statement is the conclusion of the argument?
German shepherds and other large breeds can be used for home protection.
Dogs are bred for many different purposes.
You should carefully research dog breeds to make the right choice.
It is important to select the right breed for your needs. - ANSYou should carefully research dog breeds to make the right choice. Everyone should vote ___________________. Which phrase would form an argument when added to this sentence?
because it is their duty
for the most honest candidate
in their assigned district
before the deadline - ANSbecause it is their duty

If the computer is not fixed, then the company either needs to buy a new one or will not be able to keep up productivity. Which of the following breaks down the complex proposition above into the simple propositions?

If the computer is not fixed, then the company needs to buy a new one. The company will not be able to keep up productivity.
The computer is not fixed. The company needs to buy a new computer. The company will not be able to keep up productivity.
The computer is not fixed. The company either needs to buy a new one or will not be able to keep up productivity.
The company does not have enough computers. - ANSThe computer is not fixed. The company needs to buy a new computer. The company will not be able to keep up productivity. If the new employee wants to succeed, then they need to show up on time. How many times have we heard the manager complain about tardiness? Nobody likes a 7 a.m. start time, but it was in the job description. We should remind the new employee how important this is. Which is a simple proposition that is expressed in the above paragraph?
The new employee wants to succeed.
How many times have we heard the manager complain about tardiness?
The employees look out for each other.
If the new employee wants to succeed, then they need to show up on time. - ANSThe new employee wants to succeed. In a political science debate, Student A says she supports raising the national minimum wage to $15 an hour. Student B disagrees with Student A's position. Which response from Student B is a red herring fallacy?
Student B stating her concern about international policy
Student B stating the $15 rate would not help to lift poor families above the poverty line
Student B stating businesses cannot offset the hourly wage increase by raising the cost of goods and services
Student B stating Student A does not have a background in economics - ANSStudent B stating her concern about international policy In deductive reasoning, what is the difference between validity and soundness?
Validity concerns the truth of an argument's premises, but soundness requires a high degree of probability.

Validity only concerns the structure of an argument, but soundness requires both validity and true premises.
Validity concerns an argument's probability, but soundness requires clearly defined terms.
Validity concerns the inductive strength of an argument, but soundness requires both strength and plausible premises. - ANSValidity only concerns the structure of an argument, but soundness requires both validity and true premises. In which argument do premises (1) and (2) provide conjoint support for conclusion (3)?
(1) Broccoli is high in important nutrients like vitamin C. (2) Broccoli also has antioxidants that prevent cell damage. (3) I told you that broccoli was healthy!
(1) If we fix our car, we will not have enough money for a vacation. (2) I guess we just have to fix our car, though. (3) Therefore, we will not have enough money for a vacation.
(1) The Titanic famously capsized in 1912, even though people thought it was very safe. (2) There have been high-profile passenger plane crashes around the world. (3) Clearly traveling is not without some risk.
(1) The new candidate has significant experience in the field. (2) Furthermore, they were recommended by someone I trust. (3) I think we should hire them. - ANS(1) If we fix our car, we will not have enough money for a vacation. (2) I guess we just have to fix our car, though. (3) Therefore, we will not have enough money for a vacation. In which way should an information source be approached if it is stating that it is the only source of real information and that other sources cannot be trusted?
Confidently, because the source likely has exclusive information.
Skeptically, because the source may lack credibility.
Confidently, because the source is concerned with telling the true story.
Skeptically, because the source reflects a formal fallacy. - ANSSkeptically, because the source may lack credibility. Induction - ANSarguments where the premises make the conclusion probable — analogies, authority, causal inferences, scientific reasoning, extrapolations, etc. Inference to the best explanation or abduction - ANSarguments where the best available explanation is chosen as the correct explanation Informal Fallacy - ANSInformal fallacies have a problem with their content. Jordan says, "I am the best student at our high school; I am the tallest and most athletic, and I have the best car." Taylor, Jordan's best friend, totally agrees. Which two descriptors best characterize Jordan's comments? Choose two answers.

It would be a good thing to increase international trade. - ANSIt would be a good thing to increase international trade. Most students in the class scored less than 70% on the exam. This means that the exam was too difficult to accurately assess student learning. Therefore, as exams are supposed to accurately assess student learning, the exam must be revised and readministered. Which statement is the conclusion of the above argument?
The exam must be revised and readministered.
Some students in the class scored higher than 70% on the exam.
Exams are supposed to accurately assess student learning.
Most students in the class scored less than 70% on the exam. - ANSThe exam must be revised and readministered. My opponent argues that the earth is round because Dr. Evil shaped it that way using his satellite mounted laser. Since Dr. Evil is a fictitious character, you must reject the argument that the earth is round. This is an example of which type of logic error?
Denying the antecedent
Affirming the consequent
Begging the question
The fallacy fallacy - ANSThe fallacy fallacy Non-propositions - ANSSentences that are not statements about matters of fact (or fiction). They do not make a claim that can be true or false. One should never cheat on a test, since cheating is wrong. Which type of logic error is this an example of?
Affirming the consequent
Denying the antecedent
Begging the question
The fallacy fallacy - ANSBegging the question People have fought for freedom since the beginning of time. Which descriptor best characterizes this sentence?
Proposition
Inference
Weak argument
Strong argument - ANSProposition

premise - ANSan assumption; the basis for a conclusion Premise Indicators - ANSBecause, for, given that, in that, as, since, as indicated by Professor Smith fell asleep during class today. So Professor Smith is probably a bad teacher. Which missing premise best completes the above argument?

Some former students have given Professor Smith bad reviews online.
Experts agree that falling asleep during class is a reliable sign of being a bad teacher.
Professor Smith always gives me low grades even though I study hard.
Experts agree that falling asleep during class is not a good teaching strategy. - ANSExperts agree that falling asleep during class is a reliable sign of being a bad teacher. Propositions - ANSStatements that can be true or false. Quinn started eating donuts for breakfast every day. Consequently, Quinn is likely to gain weight. Which missing premise best completes the above argument?
Donuts are not healthy.
Nutritionists have found that eating donuts for breakfast causes weight gain.
Breakfast is the most important meal of the day.
When I started eating donuts for breakfast, I gained five pounds by the third day. - ANSNutritionists have found that eating donuts for breakfast causes weight gain. red herring fallacy - ANSthe use of irrelevant material to divert attention Reese's partner was unfaithful, and this led to the end of their relationship; Reese has decided to avoid relationships because people cannot be trusted. Which fallacy of weak induction is exemplified in this argument?
Slippery slope
Hasty generalization
Equivocation
Appeal to ignorance - ANSHasty generalization Simple propositions - ANSSimple propositions have no internal logical structure, meaning whether they are true or false does not depend on whether part of them is true or false. They are simply true or false on their own. Since I received high marks in the course, I conclude that Professor Murdock is a good teacher.

Sub-inference - ANSAn inference from a premise to another premise Sub-premise - ANSpremises that are supporting one of the main premise. A premise in a sub-inference Suppose a person argues that one and only one of two options is true. However, there are more than two options. In other words, the argument looks like this: Either p is true or q is true. Q is not true. Therefore, p is true. However, there is a third option, r. Which of the following fallacies is present in this argument?

The fallacy of cherry-picking the evidence
The fallacy of shifting the burden of proof
The fallacy of circular reasoning
The false dilemma fallacy - ANSThe false dilemma fallacy Suppose Jones believes that every morning that he steps out of his house with his right foot first, he will have a good day. Jones believes this because last Tuesday morning he stepped out of his house with his right foot first. Later in the day, he received a raise at work, his friends took him to lunch, and he won $500 in the lottery. Which fallacy did Jones commit?
The fallacy of appeal to emotion
The fallacy of wishful thinking
The fallacy of post hoc ergo propter hoc
The false dilemma fallacy - ANSThe fallacy of post hoc ergo propter hoc Suppose that Smith asserts a claim that could be true but seems implausible. Jones recognizes this point and asks Smith to provide evidence for his claim. Smith responds: "Why don't you try to disprove my claim?" Which fallacy is found in this argument?
The fallacy of shifting the burden of proof
The fallacy of oversimplification
The fallacy of selective attention
The red herring fallacy - ANSThe fallacy of shifting the burden of proof System 1 Thinking - ANSThis is quick, automatic thinking System 2 Thinking - ANSThis is deliberate thinking

The Bright Tooth toothpaste company runs the following advertisement: "Use Bright Tooth toothpaste. Nine out of ten dentists recommend it!" You decide to research this claim. You discover that the Bright Tooth toothpaste company surveyed only ten carefully selected dentists, nine of whom expressed support for Bright Tooth toothpaste. You also learn that, as of 2019, there were 200,419 dentists in the United States alone. Which error is committed in the advertisement?

Selection bias
Thinking Slow
Selective attention
Unfair stereotype - ANSSelection bias The U.S. healthcare system is difficult to navigate, and this negatively affects many of us. Many people are unsure exactly how their health insurance coverage works and are not sure where they can go to get care. What can be done to improve this? If changes are not made soon, the problem will only get worse. Which is a simple proposition that is expressed in the above paragraph?
Many people are not sure where they can go to get care.
The U.S. healthcare system is difficult to navigate, and this negatively affects many of us.
What can be done to improve this?
Many people are unsure exactly how their health insurance coverage works and are not sure where they can go to get care. - ANSMany people are not sure where they can go to get care. There is a conversation in which a woman expresses disappointment with her friend for not picking her up at the airport. In response, the friend says, "Well, you never returned the wheelbarrow I let you borrow." Which response best matches this fallacy of relevance?
Red herring
False cause
Genetic fallacy
Straw figure - ANSRed herring Truth - ANSA true proposition accurately represents reality. Two politicians are engaged in a debate about healthcare. The first politician claims that human beings have a right to access healthcare. The second politician responds that this claim is unclear. He asks, "What do you mean by 'right' and 'access'?" The first politician responds by claiming that voters support accessible healthcare. Which fallacy is the first politician committing?
The false dilemma fallacy

This is availability bias. It is best avoided by carefully considering whether the examples that come to mind are truly representative of the world at large.
This is confirmation bias. It is best avoided by seeking out the best arguments for alternative viewpoints.
This is availability bias. It is best avoided by going with one's instincts and avoiding too much deliberation.
This is confirmation bias. It is best avoided by staying fixed in one's beliefs and not allowing outside influences to change one's views. - ANSThis is availability bias. It is best avoided by carefully considering whether the examples that come to mind are truly representative of the world at large. Which argument would require a conjoint, hidden assumption to be paired with premise (1) when mapped?
(1) We can either eat out at a restaurant or stay in. (2) We should not stay in. (3) So we should go out to a restaurant.
(1) If it had rained last night, the sidewalk would still be wet. (2) But the sidewalk is dry. (3) So it must not have rained last night.
(1) Out of all the movies we could watch tonight, Movie A is the funniest. (2) Therefore, we should watch Movie A.
(1) If we want to support a reasonable tax plan, we should vote for Candidate A. (2) We do want to support a reasonable tax plan. (3) So we should vote for Candidate A. - ANS(1) Out of all the movies we could watch tonight, Movie A is the funniest. (2) Therefore, we should watch Movie A. Which indicator is a premise indicator?
Hence
Because
Thus
Therefore - ANSBecause Which is the best example of System 1 thinking?
Researching different candidates' tax plans to determine how to vote
Automatically forming a judgment about someone based on how they are dressed
Splitting the bill with friends at a restaurant
Consulting multiple sources to form an investment plan - ANSAutomatically forming a judgment about someone based on how they are dressed Which is the best example of System 2 thinking?
Choosing the best college for one's child
Realizing, due to a crashing sound, that something happened upstairs

Thinking that food is rotten because it smells bad
Solving the equation 1+3=? - ANSChoosing the best college for one's child Which is the most plausible counterexample to the general moral principle that one should never lie?
Telling a lie to save innocent lives
Telling a lie to get out of trouble
Telling a lie to avoid paying income tax
Telling a lie to land a dream job - ANSTelling a lie to save innocent lives Which of the following are reasons for applying the principle of charity? Choose 2 answers.
It makes debates easier to win.
It is morally right to give others the benefit of the doubt.
It allows for a clearer understanding of the issue.
It makes one look good by making one's opponent look weak. - ANS- It is morally right to give others the benefit of the doubt.
It allows for a clearer understanding of the issue. Which of the following is a fallacy of relevance?
The fallacy of hasty generalization
The fallacy of shifting the burden of proof
The fallacy of anthropomorphism
The genetic fallacy - ANSThe genetic fallacy Which of the following is a form of cognitive bias? The false dilemma fallacy The Peter Principle Begging the question Alief - ANSAlief Which of the following is an accurate characterization of "fallacy" as that term is used in logic?
A fallacy is a formal violation of a state law.
A fallacy is a false claim.
A fallacy is a deliberate attempt to deceive.
A fallacy is a common mistake in reasoning. - ANSA fallacy is a common mistake in reasoning. Which of the following is an example of the anchoring bias?

One student cheated on the test. But it was only because the student felt ill prepared. - ANS- Every time I walk by here, Chris is doing nothing. Chris must not do anything with the available time.
We need to act now to reverse greenhouse gas emissions. If we do not, the earth will soon become inhospitable to human life. Which passage best demonstrates the principle of charity?
Shae said, "It seems that the earth is flat." Shae must mean that the earth looks flat to observers on the ground even though our planet really is round.
Morgan said, "The new tax levy to support local schools is too expensive." Morgan must think education is unimportant.
Reese said, "The oil industry has contributed to climate change." Reese must believe the oil industry is responsible for every natural disaster that occurs.
Campbell said, "People convicted of theft should not automatically receive harsh prison sentences." Campbell must mean that people who steal should never be punished. - ANSShae said, "It seems that the earth is flat." Shae must mean that the earth looks flat to observers on the ground even though our planet really is round. Which piece of information would be the most helpful to know in assessing the credibility of a news story?
Whether the political party affiliation of the author is identified
Whether the article contains video footage
Whether the name of the author and the publication are identified
Whether there is widespread agreement with the story on social media - ANSWhether the name of the author and the publication are identified Which questions are most appropriate for evaluating the credibility of an information source? Choose 2 answers.
Who funded it?
Does it try to get you to distrust other sources?
Does it support your beliefs and values?
Is it free of bias? - ANS- Who funded it?
Does it try to get you to distrust other sources? Which questions can best help readers avoid being misled by fake news? Choose 2 answers.
Has the story been vetted by independent fact-checkers?
Does the story support your political views?
Has the subject of a negative story dismissed it as fake news?

Are multiple news outlets independently reporting the same story? - ANS- Has the story been vetted by independent fact-checkers?
Are multiple news outlets independently reporting the same story? Which sentence expresses a complex proposition?
Birthday parties can be really fun.
The cat ate the food, but did not like it.
Too many employees are used to high-stress work environments in the United States.
Why did the monkey escape, and who is responsible? - ANSThe cat ate the food, but did not like it. Which sentence is a non-proposition?
If the burglar did not go out the front door, they must have gone out a window.
The earth is the third planet from the sun.
Where are the keys to my car?
Mount Everest is the tallest mountain in the world. - ANSWhere are the keys to my car? Which sentences are arguments? Choose 2 answers.
We know the student cheated on the exam because the instructor caught the student stealing glances at their neighbor's test.
The student only cheated on the exam because their financial aid depended on it.
No one has ever been to the moon, so we do not know that it is not made of cheese.
If you suspect you have been infected with rabies, then you should contact a medical professional immediately. - ANS- We know the student cheated on the exam because the instructor caught the student stealing glances at their neighbor's test.
No one has ever been to the moon, so we do not know that it is not made of cheese. Which sentences are propositions? Choose 2 answers.
Hey, let's go to lunch at noon today.
Mangino's has the best pizza.
They will likely put the other restaurants out of business.
Do you like Mangino's pizza? - ANS- Mangino's has the best pizza.
They will likely put the other restaurants out of business. Which sentences reflect strong critical thinking? Choose 2 answers.

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