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ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY REVIEWER, Lecture notes of Anatomy

Ateneo de Naga University (ADNU)Anatomy

A reviewer for the final exam in Anatomy and Physiology, specifically focusing on the digestive system. It covers the functions of the digestive system, the parts of the gastrointestinal tract and accessory glands, the histology of the GI tract, and the regulation of stomach secretions. It also discusses the small and large intestines, the accessory glands (liver, gall bladder, and pancreas), and the male and female reproductive systems.

Typology: Lecture notes

2021/2022

Available from 06/26/2023

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FINAL EXAM
REVIEWER IN
ANATOMY AND
PHYSIOLOGY
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM FUNCTIONS:
1. Food ingestion
2. Food digestion
3. Nutrient absorption
4. Nutrient metabolism
5. Waste elimination
2 PARTS OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
1. Gastrointestinal Tract (GI)
2. Accessory Gland
GI/ DIGESTIVE TRACT
1. Oral cavity
2. Pharynx
3. Esophagus
4. Stomach
5. Small intestine
6. Large intestine
GI TRACT HISTOLOGY
1. Mucosa “Inner”
Mucous Epithelium
Lamina Propria
Muscularis Mucosae
2. Submucosa
SUBMUCOSAL GLAND – regulates the
mucus.
3. Muscularis (Smooth Muscle)
Peristaltic/Peristalsis Movement
4. Serosa “outer most layer”
Made up of connective tissue layers
ORAL CAVITY
Parts:
Lips & Cheeks – mastication and speech
Tongue (7th Cranial Nerve)– speech,
taste, mastication, & swallowing
SALIVARY GLANDS
1. Parotid Gland – largest (angel of the jaw)
2. Submandibular Gland
3. Sublingual Gland – behind the tongue
SALIVARIC AMYLASE – enzyme of the saliva
STENSES DUCT – it is where the parotid excretes.
PHARYNX
1. Nasopharynx
2. Oropharynx
3. Hypopharynx
ESOPHAGUS
Connects pharynx to the stomach
Upper esophageal sphincter
Lower esophageal sphincter (cardiac
sphincter/ gastroesophageal sphincter)
– it controls the opening either
proximal or distal.
SWALLOWING:
1. Voluntary Phase – tongue moves bolus of food
from oral cavity to pharynx.
2. Pharyngeal Phase – soft palate close to
nasopharynx & epiglottis closes larynx;
pharyngeal muscles elevate the pharynx and
larynx, and move bolus into the esophagus
3. Esophageal Phase – peristalsis move food to
the stomach.
STOMACH
3 Wall Muscle Layers
Longitudinal
Circular
Oblique
GASTRIC GLANDS
1. Mucous Neck Cells – mucus (protects the
stomach lining)
2. Parietal Cells – Hydrochloric Acid & Intrinsic
Factor.
Vitamin b12 – comes from animal
sources (Ex. Fish, Egg, Milk). Vitamin
b12 helps in red blood cell maturation.
Lack of vitamin b12 can lead to anemic,
etc.
3. Chief Cells – could be found in submucosa
PEPSINOGEN regulates PEPSIN
(enzyme) – it is a strong breaker of
peptide bond.
LACTEAL – absorbs lipids.
REGULATION OF STOMACH SECRETIONS:
- Peripheral Nervous System, Gastrin and
Histamine helps in the increase of secretions.
1. Cephalic Phase – sight, smell, taste & though of
food.
pf3
pf4
pf5

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FINAL EXAM

REVIEWER IN

ANATOMY AND

PHYSIOLOGY

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM FUNCTIONS:

  1. Food ingestion
  2. Food digestion
  3. Nutrient absorption
  4. Nutrient metabolism
  5. Waste elimination

2 PARTS OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

  1. Gastrointestinal Tract (GI)
  2. Accessory Gland

GI/ DIGESTIVE TRACT

  1. Oral cavity
  2. Pharynx
  3. Esophagus
  4. Stomach
  5. Small intestine
  6. Large intestine

GI TRACT HISTOLOGY

  1. Mucosa “Inner”  Mucous Epithelium  Lamina Propria  Muscularis Mucosae 2. SubmucosaSUBMUCOSAL GLAND – regulates the mucus.
  2. Muscularis (Smooth Muscle)  Peristaltic/Peristalsis Movement
  3. Serosa “outer most layer”  Made up of connective tissue layers

ORAL CAVITY

Parts :  Lips & Cheeks – mastication and speech  Tongue (7th^ Cranial Nerve)– speech, taste, mastication, & swallowing SALIVARY GLANDS

  1. Parotid Gland – largest (angel of the jaw)
  2. Submandibular Gland
  3. Sublingual Gland – behind the tongue SALIVARIC AMYLASE – enzyme of the saliva STENSES DUCT – it is where the parotid excretes.

PHARYNX

  1. Nasopharynx
  2. Oropharynx
  3. Hypopharynx

ESOPHAGUS

 Connects pharynx to the stomach  Upper esophageal sphincterLower esophageal sphincter (cardiac sphincter/ gastroesophageal sphincter )

  • it controls the opening either proximal or distal. SWALLOWING:
  1. Voluntary Phase – tongue moves bolus of food from oral cavity to pharynx.
  2. Pharyngeal Phase – soft palate close to nasopharynx & epiglottis closes larynx; pharyngeal muscles elevate the pharynx and larynx, and move bolus into the esophagus
  3. Esophageal Phase – peristalsis move food to the stomach.

STOMACH

3 Wall Muscle Layers  Longitudinal  Circular  Oblique

GASTRIC GLANDS

  1. Mucous Neck Cells – mucus (protects the stomach lining)
  2. Parietal Cells – Hydrochloric Acid & Intrinsic Factor.  Vitamin b12 – comes from animal sources (Ex. Fish, Egg, Milk). Vitamin b12 helps in red blood cell maturation. Lack of vitamin b12 can lead to anemic, etc.
  3. Chief Cells – could be found in submucosa  PEPSINOGEN regulates PEPSIN (enzyme) – it is a strong breaker of peptide bond.  LACTEAL – absorbs lipids. REGULATION OF STOMACH SECRETIONS:
  • Peripheral Nervous System, Gastrin and Histamine helps in the increase of secretions.
  1. Cephalic Phase – sight, smell, taste & though of food.
  1. Gastric Phase – partially digested proteins and stomach distention.
  2. Intestinal Phase – acidic chyme in duodenum inhibits secretions.

SMALL INTESTINE

- major site for absorptionGoblet cells & duodenal glands - produces mucus  Most of the absorption occurs in the duodenum and jejunum. PARTS OF THE SMALL INTESTINE 1. Duodenum – “First Part” has ligaments of troits which keeps the small intestine fix. 2. Jejunum 3. Ileum *APPENDIX

LARGE INTESTINE Function : water absorption & feces production Ileocecal junction/valve – is a one-way valve in waste secretion. It separates the small intestine’s ileum and large intestine’s ascending colon.

PARTS OF THE LARGE INTESTINE

  1. Ascending colon
  2. Transverse colon
  3. Descending colon
  4. Sigmoid
  5. Rectum
  6. Anus/ Anal opening

ACCESSORY GLANDS

  1. Liver
  2. Gall Bladder
  3. Pancreas

LIVER  Has 4 lobes  Production of BILE – which helps in the digestion of fats and lipids  It stores and processes nutrients and detoxifies molecules

GALL BLADDER (Storage for bile concentrations)  It stores, concentrates and secretes the BILE.

BILLIARY DUCTS:

CYSTIC DUCT – connected to common hepatic duct forming the common bile duct. EXIT : Ampulla of Vater

PANCREAS

  • Secrets pancreatic enzymes such as

Amylase – digest carbohydrates  Lipase – digest lipids  Protease – digest proteins  Trypsin

ADDITION INFO:

  1. The stomach’s mucosa forms large fold called Rugae. 2. The two common hepatic ducts are called intrahepatic bile ducts.
  2. The colon is divided in 4 sections.
  3. Epiploic are fatty extensions of the colon’s outer wall.
  4. A substance called enamel covers the dentin of the tooth’s crown.
  5. The oropharynx is the portion of the pharynx posterior to the mouth cavity.
  6. The isophagalcardiae sphincter prevents stomach contents from flowing back into the esophagus.

URETERS  25-30cm  It collects the urine that is secreted by the kidneys and propel it to the bladder by peristaltic waves.

URINARY BLADDER  Hollow, spherical, collapsible bag of smooth muscles.  Reservoir for urine: 200-300cc: first urge 500-600cc: mod full 1000-1800cc: max capacity  Influenced by the Autonomic Nervous System.

URETHRA  Female: 3-5 cm  Male: 20cm

ORDERS HOW SUBSTANCES FLOW THROUGH THE

URINARY SYSTEM.

  1. Bowman’s capsule
  2. Proximal convoluted tubule
  3. Descending limb of the loop of Henle
  4. Ascending limb of the loop of Henle
  5. Distal convoluted tubule
  6. Collecting duct
  7. Calyces
  8. Renal pelvis
  9. Ureter
  10. Urinary bladder
  11. Urethra

ADDITIONAL INFO:

  1. Renal sinus is a fat-filles cavity just inside the kidney’s hilum.
  2. The renal calyces are branches or the renal pelvis.
  3. The ureter is a muscular tube extending from the renal pelvis to the urinary bladder. 4. The 3 basic processes observed in the nephron are filtration, tubular reabsorption and tubular secretion. 5. The afferent arteriole conducts blood into the glomerular capillaries. 6. The renal artery conducts blood into the kidney.

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

FUNCTION :

  1. Produces male and female gametes
  2. Fertilization
  3. Produces reproductive hormones
  4. Concepcion and delivery (female)

GAMETES (Sex cells) – basic structural and functional unit of the reproductive system. EXOCRINE FUNCTION – Gametes ENDOCRINE FUNCTION – Hormones

MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

TESTES (Male Gonads) “Golf Ball”  Primary reproductive organ of the male.  Surrounded by Tunica Albuginea (white coat). – inner most layer and Tunica Vaginalis (outermost layer).  SPERMATIC CORD – connects testes to the trunk and it contains blood vessels.  DUCTUS/VAS DEFERENS – passage for sperm.  SEMINIFEROUS TUBULES – creates/ produces sperm; it brings the sperm to rete testis to the duct system.  SEMEN – protects the sperm (2-5ml) 1tbsp.

DUCT SYSTEM (Accessory Gland)  EPIDIDYMIS – temporary storage for immature sperm to mature (20 days to mature)  DUCTUS/VAS DEFERENS – upward tube through spermatic cord

URETHRA – “terminal duct” the urine and semen would never pass at the same time. ASPERMIA – absence of sperm but has semen.

PARTS OF THE URETHRA:

  1. PROSTATIC – prostate gland
  2. MEMBRANOUS – up to the penis
  3. SPONGY (Penile) – longer part)

ACCESSORY GLANDS:

  1. SEMINAL VESICLE – rich in fructose, vitamin C, prostaglandins (contraction)
  2. PROSTATE GLAND – produce milky prostatic fluid (alkali)  PROSTATITIS – is the inflammation
  3. BULBOURETHRAL GLAND (Cowper’s Gland) – produces a thick clear mucus; produces lubricant.

SCROTUM “Pouch”  PENIS  Deliver sperm into the female reproductive tract.  Glans Penis – enlarged tips  Prepuce/ foreskin – sleeves around the glans.  SPERMATOGENESIS  Occurs in the seminiferous tubules of testes.  SPERM  PARTS:

  1. Acrosome – helmet-like protection produced by Golgi apparatus that breaks & releases enzymes during oocyte contact allowing the sperm to penetrate the oocyte capsule.
  2. Midpiece – contains Mitochondria providing energy for mobility.
  3. Tail (Filaments) - arise from midpiece centrioles providing whip-like movements. TESTOSTERONE PRODUCTION:

 Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) – stimulates seminiferous tubules tio produce sperm.  Luteinizing Hormone (LH) – stimulates interstitial cells of Leydig to produce testosterone. TESTOSTERONE“Masculinizing Hormone”Primary sec characteristic (Libido, reproductive organ development)  Secondary sex characteristics (Voice deepening, Body hair growth, bon growth)

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

OVARIES (female Gonads) -almond shape  Production, menstruation, secretion  Contains sac-like ovarian follicles which contains immature egg cells (oocytes).  OVULATION – releases mature egg cells on the 14th^ day of menstrual cycle  Produces estrogen and progesterone Order of cycle:

  1. Primary Follicle
  2. Growing Follicle
  3. Mature Follicle
  4. Ovulation OVARIES 3 DIVISION:
  5. External – Epithelium
  6. Middle – Cortex (hormones)
  7. Internal/Central – Medulla which contains neurovascular structures.

 DUCT SYSTEM

 Uterine Tubes  Uterus  Vagina

FALLOPIAN TUBE (uterine) 4 PARTS:

  1. Infundibulum (2cm) – contains fimbriae
  2. Ampulla (5cm) – site for fertilization
  3. Isthmus (2cm)
  4. Interstitial (1cm)